The Islamic Hajj: A Historical Perspective
The Islamic claim to historicity is well-known, but its true history is often concealed in countless individual details, each of which warrants careful investigation, as demonstrated by Inârah's research. For Islam, the so-called “five pillars” (arkān al-Islām or arkān ad-dīn “the pillars of faith”) are fundamental rituals considered obligatory by the faithful and form the very basis of Muslim life, as noted in the so-called Gabriel Hadith. These pillars are:
The Shahāda: the creed of Islam (“There is no god but God; Muhammad is the messenger of God”);
Ṣalāt: daily ritual prayer towards Mecca (location of the Kaʿba), the qibla, performed at fixed times (awqāt) five times a day, which is the supreme duty of all Muslims;
The Zakāt: the obligatory giving of a certain portion of one's possessions to the needy and other specified groups;
The Ṣaum: fasting between dawn and sunset during the month of Ramaḍān;
The Ḥaǧǧ: the Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca during the month of dhu l-ḥiǧǧah.
Upon examining the history of Islam’s development, it becomes evident that none of these rites can be considered exclusively Islamic. This is confirmed by the fact that all of these terms are borrowed from Aramaic, which in turn derived the last four from Hebrew. Thus, we take a small step forward in understanding Islam’s path of development, particularly highlighting the significant role of Aramaic (or Syriac) speaking Eastern Christianity. Some groups within this context, among other beliefs, rejected the divinity of Christ, and can be regarded as the true substrate of Islam.
Our investigation leads us far from Mecca, into the endless desert of the Ḥijāz, where later Islamic tradition claims the birthplace of “Muḥammad”, and thus of Islam itself. Notably, the second and fifth pillars of Islam seemingly refer to this city.
The Significance of Mecca in Islamic Tradition
In the Qur’an itself, the word Mecca (Makka) is mentioned explicitly only once, in Sura 48:24: “And He it is Who hath withheld men's hands from you, and hath withheld your hands from them, in the valley of Mecca, after He had made you victors over them. Allah is Seer of what you do.” It is often asserted, usually with claims of unknown phonetic changes, that the mention of Bakka in 3:96 also refers to this city: “Indeed, the first House (inna awwal abaytin) established for mankind is surely the one at Bakka, blessed, and a guidance for all creatures.”
Most commentators suggest that 14:37 elaborates on this location: “Our Lord! Lo! I have settled some of my posterity in an uncultivable valley near unto Thy holy House (ʿinda baytika l-muḥarami).” The precise relationship between Mecca and Bakka remains ambiguous, and linking them demands a leap of faith, especially since Mecca itself is attested very late and predominantly in Islamic sources, which otherwise lack correlation.
The Qur’an only refers to an unspecified valley. Conversely, Bakka is described as the location of “the first house,” which we believe was not founded for the people but by the people (lilnnāsi - li- here as the so-called Lamed auctoris). If “the first house” signifies the temple, the supposed earthly dwelling place of God, which would then also be the “holy house,” it is conceivable that 14:37 indeed refers to this, potentially indicating a valley known as Bakka.
The Evolution of Islamic Pilgrimage
Islamic orthopraxy, being relatively late, provides no substantial support in this regard. Islamic tradition acknowledges that the original direction of prayer was not towards Mecca, but northwards towards Syria (aš-šam); it is said that Muhammad changed this only in Madīna after the Jews there refused to convert. However, the Islamic sources exhibit a widespread creation of legends, often contradictory, with numerous subsequent attempts at harmonization. Thus, the designation of Mecca as the original point of reference for Islamic prayer appears to be a later tradition—it's worth noting that qibla, in the sense of “direction of prayer,” in the Qur’an, is only mentioned in 2:142-145, and could be more meaningfully interpreted as Kabbalah in its older Jewish context, referring to “(previously) revealed scriptures” (especially the Hebrew Bible, excluding the Torah).
Concerning the pilgrimage to Mecca (cf. the Hebrew term ḥag, which is used in the biblical context for the three Jewish pilgrimage festivals of Passover, Shavuot, and Sukkot, and from which Ḥaǧǧ ultimately derives), this is attested in the verse following the mention of Bakka, 3:97: “... And pilgrimage to the House (ḥiǧǧu l-bayti), is a duty unto Allah for mankind, for him who can find a way thither...”
The Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca consists of various elements: on 8 Dhu l-Ḥiǧǧah in Mecca, after entering the consecrated state of Ihram, the first Ṭawāf (the sevenfold circumambulation of the Kaʿba) is performed; this is followed by the Sa’i, the run between the hills Safa and Marwa (aṣ-Ṣafā wal-Marwa); afterwards, pilgrims drink from the Zamzam well, then proceed to the plains of Mount ʿArafāt to keep watch; they spend a night on the plains of Muzdalifa, and perform a symbolic stoning of the devil by lapidating three pillars. Subsequently, the pilgrims shave their heads, perform a sacrificial ritual, and celebrate the three-day festival ʿīdu l-aḍḥā.
Julius Wellhausen posited that the original Ḥaǧǧ was a ritual that only included the stations in the ʿArafāt plain, in Muzdalifa, and in Mina, and had no connection with the Meccan sanctuary of the Kaʿba (Restearabischen Heidentums, Berlin, 1897, 79-84). We will omit this aspect for now; in the Qur’an, the Kaʿba (Arab. “Parthenon”; a shrine originally dedicated to the virgin mother of Dushara/Dionysus/Bacchus) is mentioned only twice, in 5:95 and 5:97: “Allah has made the Kaʿba, the inviolable House, a place of prayer for mankind (l-kaʿbata l-bayta l-ḥarāma qiyāman lilnnāsi), as well as the sacred month and the sacrificial animals.”
The reference to a specific place remains elusive. According to today’s understanding of the Meccan part of the rite, only Safa and Marwa (aṣ-ṣafā wal-marwa) can be located near Mecca, the course between these two hills being given by 2:158: “Lo! (the mountains) As-Safa and Al-Marwah are among the indications of Allah. It is therefore no sin for him who is on pilgrimage to the House (of Allah) to go around them.” Again, there is no direct reference to Mecca here.
A Summary of Findings
In summary, Mecca is mentioned only once in the Qur’an (48:24), but not in connection to the Ḥaǧǧ. Another verse (3:96) mentions a “first house” located at Bakka, possibly also referenced in 14:37. A pilgrimage to this “house” is suggested in 3:97. The run between Safa and Marwa (aṣ-ṣafā wal-marwa), part of the Islamic Ḥaǧǧ, is conditionally prescribed in 2:158. From this patchwork of Qur’anic verses, the Islamic pilgrimage in and around Mecca gradually emerged, although the timeline remains uncertain.
In the Semitic languages, the noun bayt “house” can also signify a temple dedicated to a deity, often in a genitive compound (“in the house of the Lord,” e.g. Psalm 134:1). In biblical tradition, this term always refers to the Jerusalem Temple, and its use for a historically insignificant sanctuary far away in the Ḥijāz seems perplexing. However, concerning Jerusalem, in the Jewish Antiquities, Flavius Josephus recounts Alexander the Great at Jerusalem, who is said to have sacrificed to Yahweh in the Temple according to the instructions of the High Priest. Here, we read XI.329: “And when he understood that he was not far from the city, he went out in procession with the priests and the multitude of the citizens.” This procession is described as venerable and distinct from those of other nations.
According to Josephus, this procession reached a place called Sapha, which translates to “prospect” (σκοπόν), for one can behold both Jerusalem and the Temple from there. This location is identified as Mount Scopus in Jerusalem, one of the city's highest points. The Hebrew name har haṣ-ṣōfīm “Watchman’s Mountain” confirms Josephus' indication. In post-biblical Hebrew, a ṣōf is a pilgrim who has seen Jerusalem.
In the biblical tradition, the Temple Mount (har hab-báyiṯ) is identified as Mount Moriah (har ham-moriyyāh), the site where, according to Genesis 22:2, the sacrifice of Isaac nearly occurred, which in Arabic is referred to as Marwa. Thus, in Jerusalem, we find the “house” of God, undoubtedly in a monotheistic understanding, “blessed and a guidance for the worlds” (Q3:96), on the Temple Mount, which is Moriah/Marwa along with the second mountain, Scopus/har haṣ-ṣōfīm/aṣ-ṣafā.
All that remains is the mention of Bakka (53:96) and a “barren valley” (or wadi, 14:37) near the “house of God” (bi-wādin ġayri ḏī zarʿin ʿinda baytika l-muḥarrami). Notably, a valley named Bakka appears in the Bible, specifically in Psalm 84:7: “Blessed are those who dwell in your house; in whose heart are the ways of them.”
In the conception articulated by the Psalmist, the valley of weeping or Bakka (from the root bkw, also related to Bacchus) is located not far from Jerusalem. In the Targum of this psalm verse, the valley of tears (ʿämäq hab-bākkā) is rendered as “valley of Gehenna,” reflecting the Talmudic interpretation, as those condemned to hell are said to weep and shed tears due to their fate (Eruvin 19a).
The Gehenna Valley, where child sacrifices were historically made to Yahweh (Joshua 15:8; 18:16; Jeremiah 19:2), was near Jerusalem. The historical site of the pre-exilic Moloch sacrifices (likely the present-day wādī ar-rababi) differs from the Late Antique biblical exegesis, which identified it as the Kidron Valley (Hebrew naḥal qiḏron “the valley of darkness”; its upper course is, notably, in Arabic wādī annār “the valley of fire”).
Furthermore, Joel 3:2 states: “For behold, in those days and in that time, when I shall bring again the captivity of Judah and Jerusalem, I will also gather all nations, and will bring them down into the valley of Jehoshaphat, and will plead with them there for my people.” This infernal valley is characteristically barren, adjacent to the Temple Mount (ʿinda baytika l-muḥarami), vividly illustrating the contrast between ‘high’ and ‘low’, ‘light’ and ‘dark’, ‘redeemed’ and ‘damned’.
This Judeo-Christian exegetical tradition is perpetuated in Islamic tradition, referring to the valley as wādī al-ğahannam “Hell Valley.” At the end of times, during the Last Judgment, this valley will be traversed by as-ṣirāṭ (“way, path, road,” here understood as “bridge”) connecting the Temple Mount and the Mount of Olives—a passage that must be crossed by the deceased to attain Paradise. This eschatological gangplank is described as being as thin as a hair; beneath it lies the abyss of hell. Those who lack faith in God will falter and fall, while those who trust in God and receive forgiveness for their transgressions will cross unhindered.
Wellhausen’s insightful proposal to separate the Meccan aspects of the Ḥaǧǧ rite from those conducted outside the city appears accurate. The proto-Islamic pilgrimage clearly originated in Jerusalem, which is hardly surprising. Here are located the “House (of God),” the barren valley of Bakka, as well as aṣ-ṣafā and al-marwa. Not only is their geographical location assured in (post)biblical tradition, but they also fulfill a significant sacramental function that is entirely absent in Mecca.
In later Islamic tradition, some Umayyad caliphs were accused of diverting the Ḥaǧǧ from Mecca to Jerusalem. However, in the 7th century, one cannot yet accurately speak of “Islam” in the proper sense. We are likely encountering a later memory of a time when pilgrimages were still conducted to Jerusalem, which later became regarded as heretical after the complete transfer of the sacred geography of the rite to Mecca.
Thus, it is clear that the roots and motifs defining the Ḥaǧǧ entirely stem from biblical tradition; only much later were they recast to fit within the framework
By Professor Robert Kerr